Everything about Baekje totally explained
Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE), or
Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with
Goguryeo and
Silla.
Baekje was founded by
Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder
Jumong, at Wirye-sung (around present-day
Seoul). Baekje, like Goguryeo, claimed to succeed
Buyeo, a state established in present-day Manchuria around the time of
Gojoseon's fall.
Baekje alternately battled and allied with Goguryeo and Silla as the three kingdoms expanded control over the peninsula. At its peak in the 4th century, Baekje controlled most of western Korean Peninsula, as far north as
Pyongyang. It became a significant regional sea power, with political and trade relations with
China and
Japan.
In 660, it was defeated by an alliance of Silla and China's
Tang Dynasty, submitting to
Unified Silla.
History
Founding
According to the
Samguk Sagi, Baekje was founded in 18 BCE by
King Onjo, who led a group of people from
Goguryeo south to the
Han River basin. According to the Chinese record
San Guo Zhi, during the
Samhan period, one of the chiefdoms of the
Mahan confederacy was called Baekje.
The
Samguk Sagi provides a detailed account of Baekje's founding. Jumong had left his son
Yuri in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo. Jumong became
King Dongmyeongseong, and had two more sons, Onjo and
Biryu. When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him the crown prince. Realizing Yuri would become the next king, Onjo and Biryu decided to head south with their people, along with ten vassals.
Onjo settled in
Wiryeseong (present-day
Hanam), and called his country
Sipje (meaning "Ten Vassals"), while Biryu settle in Michuhol (present-day
Incheon), against the vassals' advice. The salty water and marshes in Michuhol made settlement difficult, while the people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously.
Biryu then went to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje. When Onjo refused, Biryu declared war, but lost. In shame, Biryu committed suicide, and his people moved to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomed them and renamed his country
Baekje ("Hundred Vassals").
King Onjo moved the capital from the south to the north of the Han river, and then south again, probably all within present Seoul, under pressure from other Mahan states.
King Gaeru is believed to have moved the capital to the
Bukhan Mountain Fortress in 132, probably in present-day
Gwangju, to the southeast of Seoul.
Through the early centuries of the
Common Era, sometimes called the
Proto-Three Kingdoms Period, Baekje gradually gained control over the other Mahan tribes.
Expansion
During the reign of
King Goi (
234–
286), Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to the ancient Japanese text
Nihonshoki, Baekje's expansion reached the
Gaya confederacy to its east, around the
Nakdong River valley. Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in
345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367 (According to the
Nihon Shoki : 247).
King Geunchogo (
346–
375) expanded Baekje's territory to the north through war against
Goguryeo, while annexing the remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogo's reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western
Korean Peninsula (except the two
Pyeongan provinces), and in
371, Baekje defeated Goguryeo at
Pyongyang. Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted
Chinese culture and technology.
Buddhism became the official state religion in
384.
Baekje also became a sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the
Japanese rulers of the
Kofun period, transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan.
Chinese writing system,
Buddhism, advanced
pottery, ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks throughout their relationship.
During this period, the
Han River basin remained the heartland of the country.
Ungjin period
In the
5th century, Baekje retreated under the southward military threat of Goguryeo, and in
475, the Seoul region fell to Goguryeo. Baekje's capital was located at
Ungjin (present-day
Gongju) from 475 to 538.
Isolated in mountainous terrain, the new capital was secure against the north but also disconnected from the outside world. It was closer to
Silla than Wiryeseong had been, however, and a military alliance was forged between Silla and Baekje against Goguryeo.
Most maps of the Three Kingdoms period show Baekje occupying the
Chungcheong and
Jeolla provinces, the core of the country in the Ungjin and Sabi periods.
Sabi period
In
538,
King Seong moved the capital to Sabi (present-day
Buyeo County), and rebuilt his kingdom into a strong state. From this time, the official name of the country was
Nambuyeo ("South Buyeo"), a reference to
Buyeo to which Baekje traced its origins. The Sabi Period witnessed the flowering of Baekje culture, alongside the growth of
Buddhism.
Under pressure from
Goguryeo to the north and
Silla to the east, Seong sought to strengthen Baekje's relationship with China. The location of Sabi, on the navigable
Geum River, made contact with China much easier, and both trade and diplomacy flourished during the
6th and
7th centuries.
In the
7th century, with the growing influence of Silla in the southern and central Korean peninsula, Baekje began its decline.
Fall and restoration movement
In 660, the coalition troops of Silla and
Tang of
China attacked Baekje, which was then allied with Goguryeo. The capital Sabi eventually fell, resulting in the annexation of Baekje by
Silla.
King Uija and his son were sent into exile in China while some of the ruling class probably fled to
Japan.
Baekje forces attempted a brief restoration movement, but faced Silla-Tang joint forces of 130,000 men. General
Boksin proclaimed Prince
Buyeo Pung as the new king of Baekje, called King Pung (풍왕). Baekje requested Japanese aid, and King Pung returned to Baekje with a contingent of 5,000 soldiers. Before the ships from Japan arrived, his forces battled a contingent of Tang forces in Ungjin County.
In
663, Baekje revival forces and a Japanese naval fleet convened in southern Baekje to confront the Silla forces in the
Battle of Baekgang. The Tang dynasty also sent 7000 soldiers and 170 ships. After five naval confrontations that took place in August 663 at Baekgang, considered the lower reaches of
Dongjin river, the Silla-Tang forces emerged victorious, and Buyeo Pung escaped to Goguryeo.
Social and political structure
The establishment of a centralized state in Baekje is usually traced to the reign of
King Goi, who may have first established
patrilineal succession. Like most
monarchies, a great deal of power was held by the
aristocracy.
King Seong, for example, strengthened royal power, but after he was slain in a disastrous campaign against Silla, the nobles took much of that power away from his son.
The Hae clan and the Jin clan were the representative royal houses who had considerable power from the early period of Baekje, and they produced many queens over several generations. The Hae clan was probably the royal house before the Buyeo clan replaced them, and both clans appear descended from the lineage of
Buyeo and
Goguryeo. Eight clans (Sa, Yeon, Hyeop, Hae, Jin, Guk, Mok, and Baek) were powerful nobles in the
Sabi era, recorded in Chinese records such as
Tongdian.
Central government officials were divided into sixteen ranks, the six members of the top rank forming a type of cabinet, with the top official being elected every three years. In the
Sol rank, the first (
Jwapyeong) through the sixth (
Naesol) officials were political, administrative, and military commanders. In the
Deok rank, the seventh (
Jangdeok) through the eleventh (
Daedeok) officials may have headed each field.
Mundok,
Mudok,
Jwagun,
Jinmu and
Geuku from the twelfth to the sixteenth, may have been military administrators.
According to the
Samguk Yusa, during the Sabi period, the chief minister (
Jaesang) of Baekje was chosen by a unique system. The names of several candidates were placed under a rock (Cheonjeongdae) near Hoamsa temple. After a few days, the rock was moved and the candidate whose name had a certain mark was chosen as the new chief minister. Whether this was a form of selection-by-lot or a covert selection by the elite isn't clear.
Language and culture
Baekje was established by immigrants from Goguryeo who spoke what could be a
Buyeo language, a hypothetical group linking the languages of
Gojoseon,
Buyeo,
Goguryeo, and Baekje. The indigenous
Samhan people, having migrated in an earlier wave from the same region, probably spoke a variation or dialect of the same language.
Baekje artists adopted many Chinese influences and synthesized them into a unique artistic tradition. Buddhist themes are extremely strong in Baekje artwork. The beatific
Baekje smile found on many Buddhist sculptures expresses the warmth typical of Baekje art.
Taoist influences are also widespread. Chinese artisans were sent to the kingdom by the
Liang Dynasty in 541, and this may have given rise to an increased Chinese influence in the Sabi period.
The
tomb of King Muryeong (501–523), although modeled on Chinese brick tombs and yielding some imported Chinese objects, also contained many funerary objects of the Baekje tradition, such as the
gold crown ornaments,
gold belts, and gold earrings. Mortuary practices also followed the unique tradition of Baekje. This tomb is seen as a representative tomb of the
Ungjin period.
Delicate lotus designs of the roof-tiles, intricate brick patterns, curves of the pottery style, and flowing and elegant epitaph writing characterize Baekje culture. The Buddhist sculptures and refined
pagodas reflect religion-inspired creativity. A splendid
gilt-bronze incense burner excavated from an ancient Buddhist temple site at
Neungsan-ri,
Buyeo County, exemplifies Baekje art.
Little is known of Baekje music, but local musicians were sent with tribute missions to China in the 7th century, indicating that a distinctive musical tradition had developed by that time.
Foreign relations
Relations with China
In 372,
King Geunchogo paid
tribute to the
Jin Dynasty of
China, located in the basin of the
Yangtze River. After the fall of Jin and the establishment of
Song Dynasty in 420, Baekje sent envoys seeking cultural goods and technologies.
Baekje sent an envoy to
Northern Wei of Northern Dynasties for the first time in 472, and
King Gaero asked for military aid to attack
Goguryeo. Kings
Muryeong and
Seong sent envoys to
Liang several times and received titles of nobility.
Tomb of King Muryeong is built with bricks according with Liang's tomb style.
Baekje's presence on the continent
Although controversial, some Chinese and Korean records indicate that Baekje territory included parts of present-day China, across the
Yellow Sea.
According to the
Book of Song, “Goguryeo came to conquer and occupy
Liaodong, and Baekje came to occupy
Liaoxi (遼西) (in modern
Tangshan,
Hebei); the place that came to be governed by Baekje was called the
Jinping District,
Jinping Province.” The records of
Book of Jin on
Murong Huang states that the alliance of
Goguryeo, Baekje, and a
Xianbei tribe took military action. The
Samguk Sagi records that these battles occurred during the reign of King
Micheon of Goguryeo (309-331).
According to the
Book of Liang, “during the time of
Jin Dynasty (265-420), Goguryeo conquered Liaodong, and Baekje also occupied Liaoxi and Jinping, and established the Baekje provinces.”
The
Zizhi Tongjian, compiled by
Sima Guang (1019-1086) of the
Song Dynasty (960-1279), states that in 346, Baekje invaded
Buyeo, located at
Lushan, and as a result the people of the country were scattered westward toward
Yan. That year was the first year of the King
Geunchogo’s reign (346-375) in Baekje.
The nearly contemporary record of the
Book of Qi, as well as the later Zizhi Tongjian, state that a
Northern Wei (386-534) army, comprised of 100,000 cavalry, attacked Baekje but were defeated in 488. This account is confirmed by the Samguk-sagi records on the tenth year of King
Dongseong’s reign (488). Since such an army couldn't have travelled from northern China to the southwestern corner of the Korean peninsula without passing through the hostile and powerful Goguryeo (in the reign of King
Jangsu of Goguryeo (413-491)), without being recorded in contemporary chronicles, the “Baekje” in those records must refer to Baekje presence on the other side of Goguryeo, in Liaoxi.
The Book of Qi also records that in 495 Baekje's King Dongseong requested honorary titles for the generals who repulsed the Wei attack. The titles given by the
Southern Qi court carried the names of their domains that sounded like some Liaoxi areas, such as Guangling, Qinghe, Chengyang, etc.
The Territory Section of
Mǎnzhōu Yuánliú Kǎo (满洲源流考, "Considerations on the Origin of
Manchu") also summarizes Baekje's territories, obviously including a portion of Liaoxi:
» The boundary of Baekje begins from the present-day Guangning and Jinyi provinces in the northwest and then crosses the sea in an easterly direction to arrive at the Joseon’s Hwanghae, Chungcheong, Jeolla, etc. provinces. Running east to west, Baekje’s territory is narrow; running north to south, it's long. Thus it occurs that if one looks at Baekje’s territory from the Liucheng and Beiping area, Silla is located in the southeast of Baekje, but if one looks from the Gyeongsang and Ungjin area of Baekje, Silla is located in the northeast. Baekje also borders Mohe in the north. Its royal capital has two castles at two different places in the east and west. Both castles are called “Goma.” The Book of Song says that the place governed by Baekje was called the Jinping district of the Jinping province. Tong-gao says that the the Jinping province was located between Liucheng and Beiping of the Tang period.
Hence one of Baekje’s capitals was located in “Liaoxi,” and the other inside the "Joseon" provinces. It was during the reign of
Emperor Wu of Liang that Baekje relocated its capital to southern Korea.
Both the Old and the New History of Tang say that the old Baekje territories were divided up and taken by
Silla and
Balhae. If Baekje was limited to the southwestern corner of the Korean peninsula, then it would have been impossible for the Balhae to occupy any of the old Baekje territories.
The Silla scholar and alleged Sinocentrist
Choi Chi-won (857-?) wrote that “Goguryeo and Baekje at the height of their strength maintained strong armies numbering one million persons, and invaded Wu and Yue in the south and You, Yan, Qi, and Lu in the north of the mainland China, making grave nuisances to the Middle Kingdom”.
According to these records, Baekje must have held the Liao-xi province for more than a hundred years.
Relations with Japan
Military assistance
To confront with the military pressure of
Goguryeo and
Silla, Baekje (
Kudara in Japanese) established close relations with Japan. According to the Korean chronicle
Samguk Sagi, Baekje and Silla sent their princes as hostages to the Japanese court. In exchange, Japan provided military support.
The
Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms and
Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms cite some of the Baekje royal family's descendants and some nobles as dignitaries in the Japanese court, maintaining Korean influence and ensuring the continuation of the Yamato alliance, as in the time of
Emperor Yomei, when the Buddhist temple of
Horyuji was constructed. It is also known that
Muryeong of Baekje, the twenty-fifth king, was born in Japan.
The Chinese
Book of Sui of the
Sui Dynasty says that Baekje requested and received military support from Japan during the
Baekchon river engagement.
The controversial
Nihon Shoki alleges that empress
Jingu extracted tribute and pledges of allegiance from the kings of
Baekje,
Silla, and
Goguryeo. Furthermore, it also claims that the
Gaya Confederacy was a Yamato settlement. No Korean or Chinese records ever mention the conquest of Korea by Yamato Japan.
The "Nihon Shoki" gives the invasion date of Silla and Baekje as the late 4th century. However, by this time, Japan was a confederation of local lordships, while the Three Kingdoms of Korea were fully developed, centralized powers. It is very unlikely that a developing state such as Yamato can ever extract tribute and gain suzerainty over Baekje, which heavily influenced Yamato Japan, much less Goguryeo, a dominant power at that time. The
Nihon Shoki is widely regarded to be an unreliable source of information as it mixes heavy amounts of supposition and legend with facts.
Some Japanese scholars interpret the
Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 by
King Jangsu of
Goguryeo, as describing a Japanese invasion in the southern portion of the Korean peninsula. Others claim that characters were modified and that the tale Japanese presence in Korea was added by a Japanese soldier who rediscovered the stele, apparently attempting to justify the 1910 Japanese annexation of Korea. Some Chinese and Japanese scholars discredit the intentionally damaged stele theory, based on the study of the stele itself, and based on studies of the pre–Sakō and pre-lime-marred rubbings.
The fall of Baekje and the retreat to Japan
Some members of the Baekje nobility and royalty emigrated to Japan even before the kingdom was overthrown. In response to Baekje's request, Japan in 663 sent the general
Abe no Hirafu with 20,000 troops and 1,000 ships to revive Baekje with
Buyeo Pung (known in Japanese as Hōshō), a son of
Uija of Baekje who had been an emissary to Japan. Around August of 661, 10,000 soldiers and 170 ships, led by Abe no Hirafu, arrived. Additional Japanese reinforcement, including 27,000 soldiers led by
Kamitsukeno no Kimi Wakako and 10,000 soldiers led by
Iohara no Kimi also arrived at Baekje in 662.
This attempt, however, failed at the
battle of Baekgang, and the prince escaped to Goguryeo. According to the
Nihon Shoki, 400 Japanese ships were lost in the battles. Only half of the troops were able to return to Japan.
The Japanese army retreated to Japan with many Baekje refugees. The former royal family members were initially treated as "foreign guests" (蕃客) and were not incorporated into the political system of Japan for some time.
Buyeo Pung's younger brother Sun-gwang (Zenkō in Japanese) (or ) used the family name
Kudara no Konikishi ("King of Baekje") (they are also called the Kudara clan, as Baekje was called Kudara in Japanese). The mother of
Emperor Kammu (737-806) was
Takano no Niigasa, a descendant of
King Muryeong of Baekje.
Emperor Kammu treated the
Kudara no Konikishi clan as his "relatives by marriage".
Baekje royalty are also the ancestors of the
Ouchi clan, the
Sue clan, and others.
Legacy
Baekje was briefly revived in the
Later Three Kingdoms of Korea period, as
Unified Silla collapsed. In 892, General
Gyeon Hwon established
Hubaekje (“Later Baekje”), based in Wansan (present-day
Jeonju). Hubaekje was overthrown in 936 by King
Taejo of Goryeo.
In contemporary South Korea, Baekje relics are often symbolic of the local cultures of the southwest, especially in
Chungnam and
Jeolla. The
gilt-bronze incense burner, for example, is a key symbol of
Buyeo County, and the Baekje-era Buddhist rock sculpture of
Seosan Maaesamjonbulsang is an important symbol of
Seosan City.
Further Information
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